s made for the reproduction, for such
as desired it, of the eremitical life led by Berthold and his
companions. St Teresa's additions to the rule of 1247 made the life one
of extreme bodily austerity and of prolonged prayer for all, two hours
of private prayer daily, in addition to the choral canonical office,
being enjoined. From the fact that those of the reform wore sandals in
place of shoes and stockings, they have come to be called the Discalced,
or bare-footed, Carmelites, also Teresians, in distinction to the Calced
or older branch of the order. In 1580 the reformed monasteries were made
a separate province under the general of the order, and in 1593 this
province was made by papal act an independent order with its own general
and government, so that there are now two distinct orders of Carmelites.
The Discalced Carmelites spread rapidly all over Catholic Europe, and
then to Spanish America and the East, especially India and Persia, in
which lands they have carried on to this day extensive missionary
undertakings. Both observances suffered severely from the various
revolutions, but they both still exist, the Discalced being by far the
most numerous and thriving. There are in all some 2000 Carmelite friars,
and the nuns are much more numerous. In England and Ireland there are
houses, both of men and of women, belonging to each observance.

AUTHORITIES.--A full account is given by Helyot, _Hist, des ordres
religieux_ (1792), i. cc. 40-52; shorter accounts, continued to the
end of the 19th century and giving references to all literature old
and new, may be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden u. Kongregationen_
(1897), ii. SS 92-96; Wetzer u. Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), art.
"Carmelitenorden"; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), art.
"Karmeliter." The story of St Teresa's reform will be found in lives
of St Teresa and in her writings, especially the _Foundations._
Special reference may be made to the works of Zimmerman, a Carmelite
friar, _Carmel in England_ (1899), and _Monumenta historica
Carmelitana_, i. (1905 foll.). (E. C. B.)

CARMICHAEL, GERSHOM (c. 1672-1729), Scottish philosopher, was born
probably in London, the son of a Presbyterian minister who had been
banished by the Scottish privy council for his religious opinions. He
graduated at Edinburgh University in 1691, and became a regent at St
Andrews. In 1694 he was elected a master in the university of
Glasgow--an off