e thing, and others on another, as war and
peace, and when all inquire into the conduct of their magistrates, and
other things are left to different officers, elected either by vote or
lot, then the government is an aristocracy or a free state. When some
are chosen by vote and others by lot, and these either from the people
in general, or from a certain number elected for that purpose, or if
both the votes and the lots are open to all, such a state is partly an
aristocracy, partly a free government itself. These are the different
methods in which the deliberative power is vested in different states,
all of whom follow some regulation here laid down. It is advantageous to
a democracy, in the present sense of the word, by which I mean a state
wherein the people at large have a supreme power, even over the laws, to
hold frequent public assemblies; and it will be best in this particular
to imitate the example of oligarchies in their courts of justice; for
they fine those who are appointed to try causes if they do not attend,
so should they reward the poor for coming to the public assemblies:
and their counsels will be best when all advise with each other, the
citizens with the nobles, the nobles with the citizens. It is also
advisable when the council is to be composed of part of the citizens, to
elect, either by vote or lot, an equal number of both ranks. It is also
proper, if the common people in the state are very numerous, either not
to pay every one for his attendance, but such a number only as will make
them equal to the nobles, or to reject many of them by lot.

In an oligarchy they should either call up some of the common people to
the council, or else establish a court, as is done in some other states,
whom they call pre-advisers or guardians of the laws, whose business
should be to propose first what they should afterwards enact. By this
means the people would have a place in the administration of public
affairs, without having it in their power to occasion any disorder in
the government. Moreover, the people may be allowed to have a vote
in whatever bill is proposed, but may not themselves propose anything
contrary thereto; or they may give their advice, while the power of
determining may be with the magistrates only. It is also necessary to
follow a contrary practice to what is established in democracies,
for the people should be allowed the power of pardoning, but not
of condemning, for the cause should be refer