a-power policy Germany encountered the wide domination of Great
Britain on the oceans; and this encounter bred jealousy, suspicion, and
distrust on both sides. That Germany should have been belated in the
quest for foreign possessions was annoying; but that England and France
should have acquired early ample and rich territories on other
continents, and then should resist or obstruct Germany when she aspired
to make up for lost time, was intensely exasperating. Hence chronic
resentments, and--when the day came--probably war. In respect to its
navy, however, Germany was not ready for war at the opening of 1914;
and, therefore, she did not mean to get into war with Great Britain in
that year. Indeed, she believed--on incorrect information--that England
could not go to war in the Summer of 1914. Neither the Government nor
the educated class in Germany comprehends the peculiar features of party
government as it exists in England, France, and the United States; and,
therefore, the German leaders were surprised and grievously disappointed
at the sudden popular determination of Great Britain and Ireland to lay
aside party strife and take strenuous part in the general European
conflict.

The complete preparation of the German Army for sudden war, the
authority to make war always ready in the hands of the German Emperor,
and the thorough studies of the German Staff into the most advantageous
plans of campaign against every neighbor, conspired to develop a new
doctrine of "military necessity" as the all-sufficient excuse for
disregarding and violating the contracts or agreements into which
Prussia or the new Germany had entered with other nations. To gain
quickly a military advantage in attacking a neighbor came to be regarded
as proper ground for violating any or all international treaties and
agreements, no matter how solemn and comprehensive, how old or how new.
The demonstration of the insignificance or worthlessness of
international agreements in German thought and practice was given in the
first days of the war by the invasion of Belgium, and has been continued
ever since by violation on the part of Germany of numerous agreements
concerning the conduct of war into which Germany entered with many other
nations at the Second Hague Conference.

Sanctity of National Contracts.

This German view of the worthlessness of international agreements was
not a cause of the present war, because it was not fully evident to
Europe, a