istic skepticism of the Greek intellect bursts forth anew. As
the skepticism of the Sophists marked the close of the first period of
philosophy, so the skepticism of Pyrrhonism marked the close of the
second. The new skepticism arrayed Aristotle against Plato as the
earlier skeptics arrayed atomism against the doctrine of the Eleatics.
They naturally said: "We have been seeking a long time; what have we
gained? Have we obtained any thing certain and determinate? Plato says
we have. But Aristotle and Plato do not agree. May not our opinion be as
good as theirs? What a diversity of opinions have been presented during
the past three hundred years! One may be as good as another, or they may
be all alike untrue!" Timon and Pyrrhon declared that, of each thing, it
might be said to be, and not to be; and that, consequently, we should
cease tormenting ourselves, and seek to obtain an _absolute calm_, which
they dignified with the name of _ataraxie_. Beholding the overthrow and
disgrace of their country, surrounded by examples of pusillanimity and
corruption, and infected with the spirit of the times themselves, they
wrote this maxim: "Nothing is infamous; nothing is in itself just; laws
and customs alone constitute what is justice and what is iniquity."
Having reached this extreme, nothing can be too absurd, and they cap the
climax by saying, "We assert nothing; no, not even that we assert
nothing!"

And yet there must some function, undoubtedly, remain for the "wise man"
(sophos).

Reason was given for some purpose. Philosophy must have some end. And
inasmuch as it is not to determine speculative questions, it must be to
determine practical questions. May it not teach men to _act_ rather than
to _think_? The philosopher, the schools, the disciples, survive the
darkening flood of skepticism.

Three centuries before Christ, the Peripatetic and Platonic schools are
succeeded by two other schools, which inherit their importance, and
which, in other forms, and by an under-current, perpetuate the disputes
of the Peripatetics and Platonists, namely, the Epicureans and Stoics.
With Aristotle and Plato, philosophy embraced in its circle nature,
humanity, and God; but now, in the systems of Epicurus and "Zeno", moral
philosophy is placed in the foreground, and assumes the chief, the
overshadowing pre-eminence. The conduct of life--morality--is now the
grand subject of inquiry, and the great theme of discourse.

In dealing with _mora