liberty had
representatives in all social groups. In the aristocratic circles there
was Madame de Stael, who as a republican (her father was Swiss) never
doubted the equality of the sexes; but by her actions showed her belief in
woman's right to secure the highest culture and to have political
influence. Madame de Stael's social position and her wealth enabled her to
spread these views of woman's rights; she was never dependent on the men
advocates of freedom. Madame Roland was typical of the educated republican
bourgeoisie. She participated in the revolutionary drama and was a
"political woman." On the basis of historical documents it can be asserted
that the men advocates of freedom have not forgiven her.

The intelligent people of the lower classes are represented by Olympe de
Gouges and Theroigne de Mericourt. Both played a political role; both
were woman's rights advocates; of both it was said that they had forgotten
the virtues of their sex,--modesty and submissiveness. The men of freedom
still thought that the home offered their wives all the freedom they
needed. The populace finally made demonstrations through woman's clubs.
These clubs were closed in 1793 by the Committee of Public Safety because
the clubs disturbed "public peace." The public peace of 1793! What an
idyl! In short, the regime of liberty, equality, and fraternity regarded
woman as unfree, unequal, and treated her very unfraternally. What harmony
between theory and practice! In fact, the Revolution even withdrew rights
that the women formerly possessed. For example, the old regime gave a
noblewoman, as a landowner, all the rights of a feudal lord. She levied
troops, raised taxes, and administered justice. During the old regime in
France there were women peers; women were now and then active in
diplomacy. The abbesses exercised the same feudal power as the abbots;
they had unlimited power over their convents. The women owners of large
feudal lands met with the _provincial estates_,--for instance, Madame de
Sevigne in the _Estates General_ of Brittany, where there was autonomy in
the provincial administration. In the gilds the women masters exercised
their professional right as voters. All of these rights ended with the old
regime; beside the politically free man stood the politically unfree
woman. Napoleon confirmed this lack of freedom in the Civil and Criminal
Codes. Napoleon's attitude toward all women (excepting his mother, _Madame
Mere_) was su