_Gymnasiums_ or _Realgymnasiums_, nor even to the _Oberrealschulen_ or
_Realschulen_. This explains and justifies the refusal of the German
universities to regard the leaving certificates of the Russian lyceums as
equivalent to the _Abiturienten_ certificate of the German schools. The
compulsory studies in the girls' lyceums are: Russian, French, religion,
history, geography, geometry, algebra, a few natural sciences, dancing,
and singing. The optional studies are German, English, Latin, music, and
sewing. The lyceums of the large cities make foreign languages compulsory
also; but these institutions are in the minority. In the natural sciences
and in mathematics "much depends on the teacher." A Russian woman wishing
to study in the university must pass an entrance examination in Latin.

The first efforts to secure the higher education of women were made by a
number of professors of the University of St. Petersburg in 1861. They
opened courses for the instruction of adult women in the town hall.
Simultaneously the Minister of War admitted a number of women to the St.
Petersburg School of Medicine, this school being under his control.

However, the reaction began already in 1862. Instruction in the School of
Medicine, as well as in the town hall, was discontinued. Then began the
first exodus of Russian women students to Germany and Switzerland. But in
St. Petersburg, in 1867, there was formed a society, under the presidency
of Mrs. Conradi, to secure the reopening of the course for adult women.
The society appealed to the first congress of Russian naturalists and
physicians. This congress sent a petition, with the signatures of
influential men, to the Minister of Public Instruction. In two years Mrs.
Conradi was informed that the Minister would grant a two-year course for
men and women in Russian literature and the natural sciences. The society
accepted what was offered. It was little enough. Moreover, the society had
to defray the cost of instruction; but it was denied the right to give
examinations and confer degrees. All the teachers, however, taught without
pay. In 1885 the society erected its own building in which to give its
courses. The instruction was again discontinued in 1886. Once more the
Russian women flocked to foreign countries. In 1889 the courses were again
opened (Swiss influence on Russian youth was feared). The number of those
enrolled in the courses was limited to 600 (of these only 3 per cent could
b