cial callings. The schools of commerce for women
were favored by Witte in his capacity of Minister of Finance. They have
since been placed under the control of the Minister of Instruction and
Religion. This will restrict the freedom of instruction. Instruction in
agriculture for women has not yet been established. Commerce engages
299,403 women; agriculture and fisheries, 2,086,169.

Women have been appointed as factory inspectors since 1900. The Ministry
of Justice and the Ministry of Communication employ women in limited
numbers, without entitling them to pensions. The government of the
province of Moscow has appointed women to municipal offices, and has
appointed them as fire insurance agents. The _zemstvo_ of Kiew had done
this previously; but suddenly it discharged them from the municipal
offices. For the past nine years an institution founded by the Princes
Liwin has trained women as managers of prisons.[100]

The names of two prominent Russian women must be mentioned: Sonja
Kowalewska, the winner of a contest in mathematics, and Madame
Sklodowska-Curie, the discoverer of radium. Both prove that women can
excel in scientific work. It must be emphasized that the woman student in
Russia must often struggle against terrible want. Whoever has studied in
Swiss, German, or French universities knows the Russian-Polish students
who in many cases must get along for the whole year with a couple of ten
ruble bills (about ten dollars). They are wonderfully unassuming; they
possess inexhaustible enthusiasm.

Many Russian women begin their university careers poorly prepared. To
unfortunate, divorced, widowed, or destitute women the "University"
appears to be a golden goal, a promised land. Of the privations that these
women endure the people of western Europe have no conception. In Russia
the facts are better known. Wealthy women endow all educational
institutions for girls with relief funds and with loan and stipend funds.
Restaurants and homes for university women have been established. The
"Society for the Support of University Women" in Moscow has done its
utmost to relieve the misery of the women students.[101]

The economic misery of the industrial and agricultural women (who are
almost wholly unorganized) is somewhat worse than that of the university
women. The statements concerning women's wages in Vienna might give some
idea of the misery of the Russian women. In Bialystock, which has the
best socialistic organizati