r three-place numbers, and notice the
characteristics of these. Any familiar combinations that {334} may
occur, such as 1492, he is likely to spy and remember. Lacking these,
he can at least find similar and contrasting number-groups.

For example, the list

5 7 4 0 6 2 7 3 5 1 4 0 9 2 8 6 3 8 0 1,

which at first sight seemed rather bare of anything characteristic,
was analyzed in a way partly indicated by the commas and semicolons,

5, 74, 0; 62, 73; 5140; 9, 286; 380, 1,

and memorized easily. These observed facts transformed the list from a
shapeless mass into something having definite characteristics, and the
observed characteristics stuck in mind and held the rest together.

Lists of nonsense syllables, such as

wok pam zut bip seg ron taz vis lab mer koj yad

are apt to be learned largely by observation of similarities and
contrasts, by reading meanings into the syllables, and by grouping
into pairs and reading rhythmically. Grouping reduces the twelve
syllables to six two-syllabled nonsense words, some of which may
suggest meaningful words or at least have a swing that makes them easy
to remember. Perhaps the first syllable of every pair is accented, and
a pause introduced after each pair; such devices assist memorizing.

The rhythmical and other _groups_ that are found or made by the
learner in memorizing nonsense lists are, in effect, "higher units",
and have much the same value as the higher units of telegraphy or
typewriting. One who learns many lists in the course of a laboratory
experiment develops a {335} regular system of grouping. First he reads
the list through, in groups of two, three or four items, noticing each
group as a whole; later, he notices the items in each group and how
they are related to each other. He also notices the interrelations of
different groups, and the position of each group in the total series.
All this is quite different from a mere droning along through the
items of the list; it is much more active, and much more observant.

Very interesting are the various ways in which the learner attacks a
list of nonsense syllables, numbers, or disconnected words. He goes to
work something like the cat trying to escape from a strange cage. He
proceeds by a sort of trial and error observation; he keeps looking
for something about the list that will help to fix it. He sees
something that promises well for a moment, then gives it up because he
sees something better