the common property of the
various peoples, which exchange their philosophical gifts through an active
commerce of ideas. Latin is often retained for use abroad, as the
universal language of savants, but many a work is first published in the
mother-tongue--and thought in it. Thus it becomes possible for the ideas
of the wise to gain an entrance into the consciousness of the people, from
whose spirit they have really sprung, and to become a power beyond the
circle of the learned public. Philosophy as illumination, as a factor in
general culture, is an exclusively modern phenomenon. In this speculative
intercourse of nations, however, the French, the English, and the Germans
are most involved, both as producers and consumers. France gives the
initiative (in Descartes), then England assumes the leadership (in Locke),
with Leibnitz and Kant the hegemony passes over to Germany. Besides these
powers, Italy takes an eager part in the production of philosophical
ideas in the period of ferment before Descartes. Each of these nations
contributes elements to the total result which it alone is in a position
to furnish, and each is rewarded by gifts in return which it would be
incapable of producing out of its own store. This international exchange of
ideas, in which each gives and each receives, and the fact that the chief
modern thinkers, especially in the earlier half of the era, prior to Kant,
are in great part not philosophers by profession but soldiers, statesmen,
physicians, as well as natural scientists, historians, and priests, give
modern philosophy an unprofessional, worldly appearance, in striking
contrast to the clerical character of mediaeval, and the prophetic
character of ancient thinking.

Germany, England, and France claim the honor of having produced the first
_modern_ philosopher, presenting Nicolas of Cusa, Bacon of Verulam, and
Rene Descartes as their candidates, while Hobbes, Bruno, and Montaigne have
received only scattered votes. The claim of England is the weakest of all,
for, without intending to diminish Bacon's importance, it may be said that
the programme which he develops--and in essence his philosophy is nothing
more--was, in its leading principles, not first announced by him, and
not carried out with sufficient consistency. The dispute between the two
remaining contestants may be easily and equitably settled by making the
simple distinction between forerunner and beginner, between path-breaker
and fo