ves.
The wage-earners bargaining collectively may be those of a single
establishment, or of a group of establishments in the same locality,
or of a wider territory even national in extent. Accordingly, they are
represented in the negotiations by trade-union officials with
narrower or wider jurisdiction. Employers in some cases had tacit
understandings with each other before laborers were organized. But in
many cases the individual employer was at a marked disadvantage after
the organization of his employees. The result has been the rapid
spread of employers' organizations, so that in industries where
laborers are highly organized, two-sided collective bargaining has
become more and more usual.

A large part of the effort of trade unions is directed toward ensuring
the use of collective bargaining. This is the purpose of many of
their demands, even of some that hardly appear to have any such
consideration. Collective bargaining practically necessitates the use
of "the standard rate," since only with reference to some standard
rate, a market price for labor, is it possible for a wage contract to
be made by labor officials for a group of men. The standard rate may
be a piece price or a time price, and in many cases the unions strive
to secure the latter as more convenient for their purposes. The
standard time rate usually is but a minimum and many of the more
skilful workers receive wages above the minimum. But the standard
minimum tends to become also the maximum in many cases, the more so
when the union has succeeded in enforcing a pretty high standard rate.

Sec. 7. #Limitation of competition among workers#. In order that
the representatives of organized laborers may act effectively in
collective bargaining the first condition necessary is that a
large proportion, if not all, of the workers of the trade in the
establishments concerned shall be organized. A common sense of wrong
is one of the strongest motives to bring workers together, and
has prompted the origin of many a local chapter. Then constant and
strenuous efforts are made to bring workers into the organized ranks.
Experienced organizers knowing all the arts of persuasion devote their
whole time to this task, being paid regular salaries. When friendly
argument fails, threats may be used and sometimes personal violence.
The public opinion and class feeling fostered among members of an
organization in times of difficulties are analogous to the sense of
patriot