itary system of the Lombards, the feudalism of the
Franks, the alien institutions of the Germans, superadded to
exasperate the passions of a nation blindly struggling against obstacles
that block the channel of continuous progress. Nor is this the end of
the perplexity. Not only are the cities at war with one another, but
they are plunged in ceaseless strife within the circuit of their
ramparts. The people with the nobles, the burghs with the castles, the
plebeians with the burgher aristocracy, the men of commerce with the men
of arms and ancient lineage, Guelfs and Ghibellines, clash together in
persistent fury. One half the city expels the other half. The exiles
roam abroad, cement alliances, and return to extirpate their conquerors.
Fresh proscriptions and new expulsions follow. Again alliances are made
and revolutions accomplished, till the ancient feuds of the towns are
crossed, recrossed, and tangled in a web of madness that defies
analysis. Through the medley of quarreling, divided, subdivided, and
intertwisted factions, ride Emperors followed by their bands of knights,
appearing for a season on vain quests, and withdrawing after they have
tenfold confounded the confusion. Papal Legates drown the cities of the
Church in blood, preach crusades, fulminate interdictions, rouse
insurrections in the States that own allegiance to the Empire. Monks
stir republican revivals in old cities that have lost their liberties,
or assemble the populations of crime-maddened districts in aimless
comedies of piety and false pacification, or lead them barefooted and
intoxicated with shrill cries of 'Mercy' over plain and mountain.
Princes of France, Kings of Bohemia and Hungary, march and countermarch
from north to south and back again, form leagues, establish realms, head
confederations, which melt like shapes we form from clouds to nothing.
At one time the Pope and Emperor use Italy as the arena of a deadly
duel, drawing the congregated forces of the nation into their dispute.
At another they join hands to divide the spoil of ruined provinces.
Great generals with armies at their backs start into being from apparent
nothingness, dispute the sovereignty of Italy in bloodless battles,
found ephemeral dynasties, and pass away like mists upon a mountain-side
beneath a puff of wind. Conflict, ruin, desolation, anarchy are ever
yielding place to concord, restoration, peace, prosperity, and then
recurring with a mighty flood of violence. Con