ly, which resulted in the conquest of
Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily by the Normans. Omitting all the details of
this episode, than which nothing more dramatic is presented by the
history of modern nations, it must be enough to point out here that the
Normans finally severed Italy from the Greek Empire, gave a monarchical
stamp to the south of the peninsula, and brought the Regno they
consolidated into the sphere of national politics under the protection
of the Pope. Up to the date of their conquest Southern Italy had a
separate and confused history. It now entered the Italian community, and
by the peculiar circumstances of its cession to the Holy See was
destined in the future to become the chief instrument whereby the Popes
disturbed the equilibrium of the peninsula in furtherance of their
ambitious schemes.

[1] The Pelavicini of S. Donnino, for example, gave themselves to
Parma.

The greatness of the Roman cities under the popular rule of their
Bishops is illustrated by Milan, second only to Rome in the last days of
the Empire. Milan had been reduced to the condition of abject misery by
the Kings, who spared no pains to exalt Pavia at the expense of her
elder sister. After the dissolution of the kingdom, she started into a
new life, and in 1037 her archbishop, Heribert, was singled out by
Conrad II. as the protagonist of the episcopal revolution against
feudalism.[1] Heribert was in truth the hero of the burghs in their
first strife for independence. It was he who devised the _Carroccio_, an
immense car drawn by oxen, bearing the banner of the Commune, with an
altar and priests ministrant, around which the pikemen of the city
mustered when they went to war. This invention of Heribert's was soon
adopted by the cities throughout Italy. It gave cohesion and confidence
to the citizens, reminded them that the Church was on their side in the
struggle for freedom, and served as symbol of their military strength in
union. The first authentic records of a Parliament, embracing the nobles
of the Popolo, the clergy, and the multitude, are transmitted to us by
the Milanese Chronicles, in which Heribert figures as the president of a
republic. From this date Milan takes the lead in the contests for
municipal independence. Her institutions like that of the Carroccio,
together with her tameless spirit, are communicated to the neighboring
cities of Lombardy, cross the Apennines, and animate the ancient burghs
of Tuscany.