the past, such
confidence in the present, and such hope for the future, as has hardly
been paralleled in the world's history.

During the century which had elapsed since 1485, Copernicus's discovery
that the sun and not the earth was the center of our universe, had
revolutionized the map of the heavens, as Columbus's discovery of
America had revolutionized the map of the world. Thus stimulated,
scientific investigation started afresh, working in accordance with the
modern methods formulated by Francis Bacon, while voyage quickly
followed voyage, each new discovery adding fuel to the fire of
enthusiasm. Wonderful tales of new lands and unimagined wealth spread
from mouth to mouth. The voyages {52} of Martin Frobisher, Anthony
Hawkins, and Francis Drake opened new worlds, not only to English
imagination, but also to English trade. It was they and men like them
who gave to England her unexpected naval and commercial supremacy.

The latter was partly a result of the former. Elizabeth's victories
over foreign enemies strengthened her power at home, and assured that
freedom from internal discord which is essential to commercial
prosperity. No sovereign distracted by danger from without could have
mastered the factions which had sprung up within. The great religious
movement known as the Protestant Reformation had not stopped in England
with the separation of the English from the Roman Church under Henry
VIII. It had brought into existence the Puritan, austere, bigoted,
opposed to beauty of church and ceremonial, yet filled with superb
moral and religious enthusiasm. It had brought about the persecution
of Catholics and the still more merciless persecution of Protestants
during the Catholic reaction under Queen Mary. Its successes, which
began again with Elizabeth's reign, gave occasion for continual
intrigues of Catholic emissaries. It all but plunged the nation into
civil war, a war averted only by the victory over Spain and by the
statesmanship of Elizabeth. Freed from the fear of war, however,
Puritan and Churchman, each in his own way, could apply his enthusiasm
to the works of peace.

With the return of peace and security, moreover, England first felt the
full effect of the literary Renaissance. The revival of classical
learning had already transformed the art and literature of the
continent, {53} especially that of Italy. When, therefore, England
turned again to the classics, it turned also to the Itali