do this he had to secure from the Pope a divorce from his former Queen,
who chanced to be an aunt of the Emperor Charles. What was poor Pope
Clement to do? Offend Charles who was just helping him crush the
Florentines, or refuse his "Defender of the Faith"? Real reason for the
divorce there was none. Clement temporized: and Wolsey with one eye on
his own future, helped him.

The result was tempestuous. Wolsey was hurried to his tragic downfall.
Henry took matters in his own hands and had his own English bishops
divorce him. England joined the ranks of the nations denying the
authority of Rome. Sir Thomas More and other nobles who refused to
follow Henry's bidding were beheaded. Thomas Cromwell, a new minister,
abler perhaps than even Wolsey, and risen from a yet lower sphere of
life, directed England's counsel. By one act after another the break
with Rome was made complete. A thousand monasteries were suppressed and
their wealth added to the crown. Cromwell earned his name, "the hammer
of the monks." In 1534 was passed the final "Act of Supremacy,"
declaring that the King of England and he alone was head of the English
Church.[8]

In France, too, was heresy beginning to appear. The young scholar, Jean
Calvin, wrote so vigorously against Rome that he was driven to flee from
Paris, though King Francis was himself suspected of favoring the free
thought of the reformers. Calvin, after many vicissitudes, settled in
Geneva and built up there a religious republic, that became intolerant
on its own account, and burned heretics who departed from its heresy.
But at least Geneva was in earnest. Calvinism spread fast over France;
it began crowding Lutheranism from parts of Germany. Geneva became the
"Protestant Rome," the centre of the opposition from which ministers
went forth to preach the faith.[9]

Science also began to raise its head against the ancient Church. The
Polish astronomer Copernicus had long since conceived his idea that the
earth was not the centre of the universe. He even pointed out the
proofs of his theory to a few brother-scientists; but the Church taught
otherwise, so Copernicus kept silent till, on his death-bed, he let his
doctrines be published in a book. Then he passed away, bequeathing to
posterity the wonderful foundation upon which modern science has so
built as to make impossible many of the over-literal teachings of the
mediaeval Church.[10]

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION

Nothing but a miracle, i