hted fires of insurrection
in Germany, Austria, Poland, and Italy. Similar attempts were made at
later times. As a result of these popular uprisings and of the growing
education of all classes of the people, manhood suffrage and
representative institutions were established in most of the European
states.

NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS.--The Holy Allies had refused to recognize the
right of nations to independent existence. They had bartered peoples and
provinces "as if they were chattels and pawns in a game." But when the
peoples tried to found democratic governments, they often discovered
that the quickest and surest way was to unite under one government all
who belonged to a given nationality. Thus the last hundred years in
Europe has witnessed the erection of a number of new national states
created by throwing off the yoke of some foreign ruler. Among the new
nations thus established were (1) Belgium, freed from the kingdom of
Holland; (2) Greece, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Albania, freed from
Turkish rule; (3) Italy, united out of territories controlled by petty
sovereigns and Austrian rulers; (4) Norway, separated from Sweden. The
same period saw also the unification of a number of German states into
the German Empire. But during this time several races were unsuccessful
in obtaining independence, among which we may note the Poles (in Russia,
Prussia, and Austria), the Czechs (checks), or Bohemians (in northern
Austria), the Finns (in the northwestern part of the Russian Empire),
and the Slavic people in the southern part of Austria-Hungary.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT.--The nineteenth century was not only a period
of political change in Europe. It was also a time of great changes in
the general welfare of the people. It witnessed a remarkable alteration
in everyday employments and habits. In 1800 a great part of the
population was engaged in agriculture. Manufacturing and commerce were
looked upon as of minor importance. The goods that were produced were
made by hand labor in the workman's own home. Beginning first in England
about 1750 and extending to the Continent between 1820 and 1860, there
came a great industrial change. The steam engine was applied to
spinning, weaving, and countless other operations which previously had
been performed by hand. Steam engines could not of course be installed
in every small cottage; hence a number of machines were put in one
factory to be run by one steam engine. The workers left th