ize the primary school systems, proposing a law for obligatory
and free primary instruction, and another for the secondary education of
girls. But he declared himself against purely secular schools, holding
that "the minister and the schoolmaster are the two columns on which
rests the edifice of the republic." By this attitude he alienated both
the Right and the Republicans of the Extreme Left, and was forced to
resign on the 5th of July 1848. He was one of those who protested
against the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851, but was not
proscribed by Louis Napoleon. He refused to sit in the _Corps
Legislatif_ until 1864, in order not to have to take the oath to the
emperor. From 1864 to 1869 he was in the republican opposition, taking a
very active part. He was defeated at the election of 1869. On the 8th of
February 1871 he was named deputy for the Seine et Oise, and
participated in the drawing up of the Constitutional Laws of 1875. On
the 16th of December 1875, he was named by the National Assembly senator
for life. He died on the 16th of March 1888, three months after the
election of his elder son, M.F.S. Carnot (q.v.), to the presidency of
the republic. He had published _Le Ministere de l'instruction publique
et des cultes du 24e fevrier au 5e juillet 1848_, (1849), _Memoires sur
Lazare Carnot_ (2 vols., 1861-1864), _Memoires de Barere_ (with David
Angers, 4 vols., 1842-1843). His second son, Marie Adolphe Carnot (b.
1839), became a distinguished mining-engineer and director of the Ecole
des Mines (1899), his studies in analytical chemistry placing him in the
front rank of French scientists. He was made a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1895.

See Vermorel, _Les Hommes de 1848_, (3rd ed., 1869); E. Spuller,
_Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique_ (1891); P. de la
Gorce, _Histoire du Second Empire_ (1894 et seq.).

CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE(1753-1823), French general, was born
at Nolay in Burgundy in 1753. He received his training as an engineer at
Mezieres, becoming an officer of the Corps de Genie in 1773 and a
captain ten years later. He had then just published his first work, an
_Essai sur les machines en general_. In 1784 he wrote an essay on
balloons, and his. _Eloge_ of Vauban, read by him publicly, won him the
commendation of Prince Henry of Prussia. But as the result of a
controversy with Montalembert, Carnot abandoned the official, or Vauban,
theories of the art of