secured better terms for their trade, and to the seizure of Egyptian
vessels by the king of Aragon and the prince of Catalonia. In a census
made during Barsbai's reign, it was found that the total number of towns
and villages in Egypt had sunk to 2170, whereas in the 4th century A.H.
it had stood at 10,000. Much of Barsbai's attention was occupied with
raids into Asia Minor, where the Dhu 'l-Kadiri Turkomans frequently
rebelled, and with wars against Kara Yelek, prince of Amid, and Shah
Rokh, son of Timur. Barsbai died on the 7th of June 1438. In accordance
with the custom of his predecessors he left the throne to a son still in
his minority, _Abu'l-Mahasin Yusuf_, who took the title _Malik
al-'Aziz_, but as usual after a few months he was displaced by the
regent _Jakmak_, who on the 9th of September 1438 was proclaimed sultan
with the title _Malik al-Zahir_. In the years 1442-1444 this sultan sent
three fleets against Rhodes, where the third effected a landing, but was
unable to make any permanent conquest. In consequence of a lengthy
illness Jakmak abdicated on the 1st of February 1453, when his son
_'Othman_ was proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Mansur_. Though
not a minor, he had no greater success than the sons of the usurpers who
preceded him, being dethroned after six weeks (March 15th, 1453) in
favour of the amir _Inal al-'Ala'i_, who took the title _Malik
al-Ashraf_. His reign was marked by friendly relations with the Ottoman
sultan Mahommed II., whose capture of Constantinople (1453) was the
cause of great rejoicings in Egypt, but also by violent excesses on the
part of the Mamelukes, who dictated the sultan's policy. On his death on
the 26th of February 1461 his son _Ahmad_ was proclaimed sultan with the
title _Malik al-Mu'ayyad_; he had the usual fate of sultans' sons,
earned in his case by an attempt to bring the Mamelukes under
discipline; he was compelled to abdicate on the 28th of June 1461, when
the amir _Khoshkadam_, who had served as a general, was proclaimed
sultan. Unlike the other Mameluke sovereigns, who were Turks or
Circassians, this man had originally been a Greek slave.

Early relations with Turkey.

In his reign (1463) there began the struggle between the Egyptian and
the Ottoman sultanates which finally led to the incorporation of Egypt
in the Ottoman empire. The dispute began with a struggle over the
succession in the principality of Karaman, where the two sultans
favoured r