lished, and that
this one (the extra assessment of a quarter of the produce of timber)
was established by decree. It is only a master, and an absolute master,
who could reason in this way."]

[Footnote 4152: Law of March 20, 1813. (Woods, meadows, and
pasture-grounds used by the population in common are excepted, also
buildings devoted to public use, promenades, and public gardens.)--The
law takes rural possessions, houses and factories, rented and producing
an income. Thiers, XVI., 279. The five percents at this time were worth
75 francs, and 138 millions of these gave a revenue of 9 millions, about
the annual income derived by the communes from their confiscated real
estate.]

[Footnote 4153: Aucoc, ibid., Sec.Sec. 55 and 135.]

CHAPTER II. LOCAL SOCIETY SINCE 1830.

I. Introduction of Universal suffrage.

Local society since 1830.--Introduction of a new internal
motor.--Subordinate to the external motor.--Advantageous
under the system of universal suffrage.

Neither lips nor heart are capable of pronouncing the above invigorating
and conclusive phrase after a silence of 30 years. That local society
ought to be a private association, does not interest those who are
concerned, while the legislator does not permit it. Indeed, after the
year VIII (1799), the State (Napoleon) introduces into the machine the
new motivation described above. After the revolution of 1830,[4201] the
municipal and general councilors become elective and are appointed by
a limited suffrage; after the revolution of 1848, they are elected
by universal suffrage.[4202] After the revolution of 1870,[4203] each
municipal council elects its own mayor, while the council-general,
whose powers are enlarged, leaves in its place, during its vacations, a
standing committee who arrange with, and govern along with, the prefect.
Here, in local society, is a superadded internal motor, working from
below, whilst the first one is external and works from above; from
now on, both are to work together and in accord.--But, in reality, the
second (the council-general) remains subordinate; moreover, it does not
suit the machine[4204] and the machine does not suit it; it is only
a superfluity, an inconvenient and cumbersome intruder, nearly always
useless, and often mischievous. Its influence is feeble and of little
effect; too many brakes are attached to it; its force diminishes through
the complexity of its numerous wheels; it fails in