ot enough to show
that the general tendency of almsgiving is injurious; for, by taking
pains in a particular case, the general tendency may often be
counteracted.

Sometimes an argument establishing a wholly irrelevant conclusion is
substituted for an _argumentum ad rem_. Macaulay complains of those
apologists for Charles I. who try to defend him as a king, by urging
that he was a good judge of paintings and indulgent to his wife.

To this class of Fallacies belongs the _argumentum ad hominem_, which
consists in showing not that a certain proposition is true, but that
Critias ought to accept it in consistency with his other opinions. Thus:
'In every parish the cost of education ought to be paid out of the
rates: you, at least, have said that there can be no sound economy,
unless local expenses are defrayed from local funds.' But whether this
is a fallacy depends, as Whately observes, upon whether it is urged as
actually proving the point at issue, or merely as convicting the
opponent of inconsistency. In the latter case, the argument is quite
fair: whatever such a conclusion may be worth.

Similarly with the _argumentum ad populum_: 'this measure is favourable
to such or such a class; let them vote for it.' An appeal to private
greed, however base, is not fallacious, as long as the interest of the
class is not _fraudulently_ substituted for the good of the nation. And
much the same may be said for the _argumentum ad verecundiam_. When a
question of morals is debated as a question of honour among thieves,
there is no fallacy, if the moral issue is frankly repudiated. The
argument from authority is often brought under this head: 'such is the
opinion of Aristotle.' Although this does not establish the truth of any
proposition, it may be fairly urged as a reason for not hastily adopting
a contrary conclusion: that is, if the subject under discussion be one
as to which Aristotle (or whoever the authority may be) had materials
for forming a judgment.

A negative use of this fallacy is very common. Some general doctrine,
such as Positivism, Transcendentalism, Utilitarianism, or Darwinism, is
held in common by a group of men; who, however, all judge independently,
and therefore are likely to differ in details. An opponent exhibits
their differences of opinion, and thereupon pretends to have refuted the
theory they agree in supporting. This is an _argumentum ad scholam_, and
pushes too far the demand for consistency. In fact