serting the given premise. If it is a question
whether Britain will decay, to attempt (while several empires still
flourish) to settle the matter by asserting that _all_ empires decay,
seems to be 'a begging of the question.' But although this latter case
is a manifest prediction, it does not really differ from the former one;
for the proof that camels are herbivorous has no limits in time. If
valid, it shows not only that they are, but also that they will be,
herbivorous.

Hence, to resort to a dilemma, it may be urged: If _all_ the facts of
the major premise of any syllogism have been examined, the syllogism is
needless; and if _some_ of them have not been examined, it is a _petitio
principii_. But either all have been examined, or some have not.
Therefore; the syllogism is either useless or fallacious.

Sec. 4. A way of escape from this dilemma is provided by distinguishing
between the formal and material aspects of the syllogism considered as a
means of proof. It begs the question formally, but not materially; that
is to say, if it be a question whether camels are herbivorous, and to
decide it we are told that '_all_ ruminants are,' laying stress upon the
'all,' as if all had been examined, though in fact camels have not been,
then the question as to camels is begged. The form of a universal
proposition is then offered as evidence, when in fact the evidence has
not been universally ascertained. But if in urging that 'all ruminants
are herbivorous' no more is meant than that so many other ruminants of
different species are known to be herbivorous, and that the ruminant
stomach is so well adapted to a coarse vegetable diet, that the same
habit may be expected in other ruminants, such as camels, the argument
then rests upon material evidence without unfairly implying the case in
question. Now the nature of the material evidence is plainly this, that
the resemblance of camels to deer, oxen, etc., in chewing the cud,
justifies us in believing that they have a further resemblance in
feeding on herbs; in other words, we assume that _resemblance is a
ground of inference_.

Another way of putting this difficulty which we have just been
discussing, with regard to syllogistic evidence, is to urge that by the
Laws of Syllogism a conclusion must never go beyond the premises, and
that therefore no progress in knowledge can ever be established, except
by direct observation. Now, taking the syllogism formally, this is true:
if t