t in a general bankruptcy. Already 145,000,000,000,000 of
assignats had been issued. Gold was difficult to procure, a quotation
for a louis in 1797 being three thousand and eighty francs in paper. A
new form of assignat had been tried, but without much success. The
expenses of the war were enormous, an army of over 1,000,000 men having
doubled the annual expenses of the State. Had not Bonaparte
systematically bled Italy of money and treasure the Directoire could
not have conducted business so long. As it was, it could go on no
longer. The new taxes, on property and income, had not become
effective, largely because collection was devolved on the communes.
And so, a few days after the revolution of Fructidor, a partial
bankruptcy was declared; interest payments were suspended on two-thirds
of the debt.

In the following spring, March-April 1798, the elections once more
proved disastrous to the Directors. They really had few supporters
beyond those who held office under them, or who hoped for their turn to
come to hold office. Over 400 deputies were to be chosen, and opinion
was still so hostile that {253} the only chance of the Directors was in
illegal action. They tampered with the elections; and, finding this
insufficient to accomplish their object, succeeded by another stroke of
violence in getting a decree, on the 4th of May, 22d of Floreal,
excluding a number of the newly elected deputies. All this proved in
vain. The temper of the Councils was solidly hostile, and now the
hostility came as much from the Jacobin as from any other part of the
house.

Partly from weakness, partly to create a diversion, the Directoire was
now drifting into a new war. In February, owing to French intrigues, a
riot took place at Rome, which resulted in a republic being proclaimed
and the Pope being driven from the city. Further north the same
process was repeated. French troops occupied Bern, and under their
influence an Helvetic republic came into existence. Meanwhile, the war
with England continued with increased vigour; a great stroke was aimed
at England's colonial empire of the East, Bonaparte sailing from Toulon
for Egypt on the 19th of May. On the 12th of June he seized Malta; on
the 21st of July he routed the Mamelukes in the battle of the Pyramids;
and on the 1st of August his fleet was destroyed at its anchorage, near
the mouth {254} of the Nile, by Admiral Nelson. The best army and the
best general of the Di