eignty. The historian Coppi, who
was charged to draw up a plan of reform in reply to these demands,
relates that the Pope and the majority of the cardinals rejected every
serious change, and were resolved to uphold the old principles, and to
concede nothing to the lay party, "because, if anything was voluntarily
conceded, there would be no right of recalling it afterwards." Two
things in particular it was determined not to grant--elective Councils
in the towns and provinces, and a lay Council of State beside the Sacred
College. In a general way, vague reforms were promised; but the promise
was not redeemed. Austria would not tolerate any liberal concessions in
Italy which were in contradiction with her own system and her own
interests; thus all Italian aspirations for reforms were concentrated in
the wish to get rid of the foreign yoke, and Austria never succeeded in
forming a party amongst the Italians favourable to her power. Yet
Gregory XVI. knew that great changes were needed. In 1843 he said:--

The civil administration requires a great reform. I was too old when
I was elected; I did not expect to live so long, and had not the
courage to begin the undertaking. For whoever begins, must accomplish
it. I have now only a few more years to live; perhaps only a few
days. After me they will choose a young Pope, whose mission it will
be to perform the act, without which it is impossible to go on.

The Austrian occupation caused the Roman Government to be identified
with the foreign supremacy, and transferred to it the hatred of the
patriots. The disaffection of the subjects of the Pope had deeper
motives. Except the clergy, that overshadows all, there are no distinct
orders in the society of the Roman State; no country nobility, no
wealthy class of peasant proprietors; nothing but the population of the
towns, and a degenerate class of patricians. These were generally
hostile to the ecclesiastical system. The offices are so distributed,
that the clergy govern, and the laity are their instruments. In the
principal departments, no amount of services or ability could raise a
layman above a certain level, beyond which younger and less competent
ecclesiastics were promoted over his head. This subordination, which led
to a regular dependence of the lay officials on the prelates, drove the
best men away from the service of the State, and disposed the rest to
long for a government which should throw open to them t