Negro affairs before 1865; but these are hardly extricable from war
expenditures, nor can we estimate with any accuracy the contributions of
benevolent societies during all these years.

Such was the work of the Freedmen's Bureau. To sum it up in brief, we
may say: it set going a system of free labor; it established the black
peasant proprietor; it secured the recognition of black freemen before
courts of law; it founded the free public school in the South. On the
other hand, it failed to establish good will between ex-masters and
freedmen; to guard its work wholly from paternalistic methods
that discouraged self-reliance; to make Negroes landholders in any
considerable numbers. Its successes were the result of hard work,
supplemented by the aid of philanthropists and the eager striving of
black men. Its failures were the result of bad local agents, inherent
difficulties of the work, and national neglect. The Freedmen's
Bureau expired by limitation in 1869, save its educational and bounty
departments. The educational work came to an end in 1872, and General
Howard's connection with the Bureau ceased at that time. The work of
paying bounties was transferred to the adjutant general's office, where
it was continued three or four years longer.

Such an institution, from its wide powers, great responsibilities, large
control of moneys, and generally conspicuous position, was naturally
open to repeated and bitter attacks. It sustained a searching
congressional investigation at the instance of Fernando Wood in 1870. It
was, with blunt discourtesy, transferred from Howard's control, in his
absence, to the supervision of Secretary of War Belknap in 1872, on the
Secretary's recommendation. Finally, in consequence of grave intimations
of wrongdoing made by the Secretary and his subordinates, General Howard
was court-martialed in 1874. In each of these trials, and in other
attacks, the commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau was exonerated from
any willful misdoing, and his work heartily commended. Nevertheless,
many unpleasant things were brought to light: the methods of transacting
the business of the Bureau were faulty; several cases of defalcation
among officials in the field were proven, and further frauds hinted
at; there were some business transactions which savored of dangerous
speculation, if not dishonesty; and, above all, the smirch of the
Freedmen's Bank, which, while legally distinct from, was morally and
practically