ered, constituting the principal
agricultural literature of Europe, prior to the eighteenth century.
Most of the early English books on husbandry were mere translations
of the Roman books on that subject, with a few original observations
added.

AGRICULTURE IN ENGLAND

The northern or colder parts of Europe were many centuries behind the
Mediterranean nations in agricultural achievement. At the time of the
discovery of America, England and most of the nations of Europe were
controlled by the feudal system. The arable land was owned in large
estates or manors by feudal barons, the actual labor on the farms
being performed by serfs. These farm laborers belonged to the land
and were exchanged with it when there was a change in ownership of
the real estate. Farming was looked upon as necessary to existence,
but not as a business enterprise. Since trade and transportation in
farm products were extremely limited, consumption took place near the
fields of production. It was more economical for a baron to move his
family and retinue of servants to different parts of his domain than
it was to transport the food stuffs to one central habitation. The
possibility of serfs becoming land owners was too remote for
consideration.

CONTINENTAL INFLUENCES

Farming practices in England before the eighteenth century were
largely adaptations from other European countries. The Romans, about
the beginning of the Christian era, took their husbandry to the
British Isles. The Anglo-Saxons in the fifth century, brought in from
the mainland their farm practices. Likewise the Normans in the
eleventh century brought over their methods of tillage. Owing to the
close proximity to France, Flanders and Holland, agricultural
innovations in those countries were not long in gaining attention and
trial by the British farmers. The long hours of sunlight during short
summers, with the opposite conditions prevailing in the winters, have
influenced the development of plant species in all northern
latitudes. Such seasonal conditions have also made necessary a
distinct type of farming. Many crops of the Mediterranean region do
not survive in north European countries. People in the colder regions
also require a different diet than do those living in the warmer
climates. By the seventeenth century an agriculture adapted to
northern Europe had come into general practice. The implements used
in farm work were, by modern standards, very crude and were
custo