religious belief or unbelief (S599).

Commercially the nation has made equal progress. The barbarous Corn
Laws (SS592, 594) were repealed in 1848, the narrow protective policy
of centuries abandoned; and since that period England has practically
taken its stand on unlimited free trade with all countries.

33. Condition of Ireland; Reform in the Land and the Church Laws;
Civil-Service Reform; Education.

In one direction, however, there had been no advance. Following the
example of Scotland (S513), Ireland was politically united to Great
Britain (S562); at the beginning of the century when the first
Imperial Parliament met (1801), but long after the Irish Catholics had
obtained the right of representation in Parliament, they were
compelled to submit to unjust land laws, and also to contribute to the
support of the Established (Protestant) Church in Ireland. Finally,
through the efforts of Mr. Gladstone and others, this branch of the
Church was disestablished (1869) (S601); later (1870, 1881, 1903),
important reforms were effected in th eIrish land laws (SS603, 605,
620).

To supplement the great electoral reforms which had so widely extended
the power of the popular vote, two other measures were now carried.
One was that of Civil-Service Reform, 1870, which opened all
clerkships and similar positions in the gift of the government to the
free competition of candidates, without regard to their political
opinions (S609). This did away with most of that demoralizing system
of favoritism which makes government offices the spoils by which
successful political parties reward "little men for little services."
The "secret ballot," another measure of great importance, followed
(1872) (S609).

The same year, 1870, England, chiefly through Mr. Forster's efforts,
took up the second measure, the question of national education. The
conviction gained ground that if the working classes are to vote, then
they must not be allowed to remain in ignorance; the nation declared
"we must educate our future masters." In this spirit a system of
elementary government schools was established, which gives instruction
to tens of thousands of children who hitherto were forced to grow up
without its advantages (S602). These schools are not yet entirely
free, although the legislation of 1891-1894 practically puts most of
them on that basis.

England now has a strong and broad foundation of national education
and of political suffrage.