he Spanish courts of that day. The confession of an accused person
secured his conviction, even though not made in the presence of a
judge. Indirect and hearsay evidence were accepted, and such things
as writs of habeas corpus and the plea of double jeopardy were unknown
in Spanish procedure.

The _guardia civil_ could rearrest individuals and again charge them
with crimes of which they had already been acquitted. I have been
assured by reliable Filipino witnesses that it was common during the
latter days of Spanish sovereignty for persons who had made themselves
obnoxious to the government to be invited by non-commissioned
officers to take a walk, which was followed either by their complete
disappearance or by the subsequent discovery of their dead bodies.

It naturally resulted that the members of the _guardia civil_ were
regarded with detestation and terror by the people, but their power
was so absolute that protest rarely became public. The one notable
exception was furnished by Dr. Rizal's book entitled "Noli Me Tangere,"
which voiced the complaints of the Filipinos against them. There is
not a vestige of doubt that hatred of them was one of the principal
causes of the insurrection against Spain.

In 1901 the American government organized a rural police force in
the Philippines. It was called the Philippine constabulary. The
insurrection was then drawing to a close, but there were left in the
field many guerilla bands armed and uniformed. Their members sought to
excuse their lawless acts under the plea of patriotism and opposition
to the forces of the United States. In many provinces they combined
with professional bandits or with religious fanatics. Various "popes"
arose, like Papa Isio in Negros. The Filipinos had become accustomed
to a state of war which had continued for nearly six years. Habits
of peace had been abandoned. The once prosperous haciendas were in
ruins. War and pestilence had destroyed many of the work animals,
and those which remained continued to perish from disease. Asiatic
cholera was sweeping through the archipelago, and consternation and
disorder followed in its wake.

Under such circumstances the organization of a rural police force was
imperatively necessary. Unfortunately the most critical situation which
it was to be called upon to meet had to be faced at the very outset,
when both officers and men were inexperienced and before adequate
discipline could be established.

The law pr