, the burghers
or "citizens," who dominate the world to-day. In opposition to these
there came also an unforeseen accession of strength to kings. The
boundaries of modern states grew more clearly defined; modern
nationalities were distinctly established; Europe assumed something of
the outline, something of the social character, which she still
retains.

The period includes not only the culmination and close of the
crusading fervor, but also, coincident with this, the culmination of
both the religious and the temporal powers of the popes, and the
scarce recognized beginning of their decline. Universities, vaguely
existent before, now increase rapidly in numbers and importance,
receive definite outlines and foundations, and exert a mighty
influence. In fact it has been not inaptly said that the rule of
mediaeval Europe was divided amid three powers--the emperor, the pope,
and the University of Paris. Books, from which we can trace the
history of the time, become as numerous as before they had been scant
and vague and misleading. Thought reveals itself struggling everywhere
for expression, displayed at times in the sunshine of song and rhyme
and merry laughter, at times in the storms of philosophic dispute and
religious persecution.

In short, this was an age of strife between old ways and new. It saw
the granting of Magna Charta, but it saw also the establishment of the
Inquisition, and the creation of the two great monastic orders, whose
opposing methods, the Dominicans ruling by fear and the Franciscans by
love, are typical of the contrasting spirits of the time. It was the
age which in the next century under Dante's influence was to burst
into blossom as the Renaissance.

FREDERICK BARBAROSSA

Not often has one man proven influential enough to dominate and alter
the direction of his epoch; but very frequently we see one taking
advantage of its tendencies and so managing these, so directing them,
that he seems almost to create his surroundings, and becomes to all
men the expression and example of his times. Such a leader was the
emperor Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), and we may follow his
fortunes in tracing the early part of this era.

The First Crusade had depleted Europe of half a million fighting men.
Then came a pause of fifty years, after which it was learned that
Jerusalem was again in danger of falling into the hands of the
Mahometans. So, in 1147, another vast crusading army set out to the
rescue.