ional progress, does England owe to her
oppressor. Never perhaps has any man devoted to evil done unwittingly
so much of good as he.[6]

Thus the English nation grew united, while the French provinces were
brought into closer dependence on their own king. In fact, Philip
Augustus, by clever use now of the commons, now of the nobles,
succeeded in dominating both. Following his example his successors
managed for many centuries to remain "lords of France" with a security
and absoluteness of power which no English king, no German emperor,
was ever again to attain.

In Germany the death of Barbarossa left his throne to a short-lived
evil son and then to an infant grandson, Frederick II. Other claimants
to the realm sprang up, the great lords asserted and fully established
their right to elect what emperor they pleased. Through this right
they made themselves strong, their ruler weak, and so feudalism
persisted in Germany while it was fading in France and England.
Private war continued, baron fought against baron, confusion and
anarchy prevailed more and more, and in the march of civilization
Germany was left behind. She lagged for centuries in the rear of her
neighbors, staring after them, despising, envying, scarce
comprehending. It is only within the last hundred and fifty years that
Germany has reasserted her ancient place among the foremost of the
nations.

THE PAPACY

We have said that the only place where Barbarossa failed was in his
Italian wars. These were waged against democracy and against the
popes. Southern Italy was at this time a kingdom, in Central Italy lay
the papal states, and north of these were all the independent cities.
Assuming the democratic leadership of the cities, the popes acquired a
strong temporal power. The growth of this we have traced through
earlier periods; it reached its culmination under Pope Innocent III
(1198-1216). He almost succeeded to the emperors as the acknowledged
ruler of Europe.[7]

Secured from martial invasion by the strength of the federated cities,
as well as by the spiritual dominion which he wielded, Innocent
extended his authority over all men and all affairs. He ordered
unlucky King John to accept a certain archbishop for England; and when
John refused, England was laid under an "interdict," that is, no
church services could be held there, not even to shrive the dying or
bury the dead. For a while John was scornful, but at length his
accumulating troubles forc