e can judge, the current view at this time was that where
fleets were equal, every known form of concentration was unadvisable
upon an unshaken enemy. The methods of the Duke of York's school were
regarded as having failed, and the result appears to have been to
convince tacticians that with the means at their disposal a strict
preservation of the line gave a sure advantage against an enemy who
attempted an attack by concentration. Tactics, in fact, in accordance
with a sound and inevitable law, having tended to become too
recklessly offensive, were exhibiting a reaction to the defensive. If
the enemy had succeeded in forming his line, it had come to be
regarded as too hazardous to attempt to divide his fleet unless you
had first forced a gap by driving ships out of the line. This idea we
see reflected in the 6th paragraph of the Duke of York's twenty-second
article (1673) and in Russell's new twenty-third article, enjoining
ships to close up any gap that may have been caused by the next ahead
or astern having been forced out of the line. Briefly stated, it may
be said that the preoccupation of naval tactics was now not so much to
break the enemy's line, as to prevent your own being broken.

But the matter did not end here. It was seen that when your own fleet
was superior, concentration was still practicable in various ways, and
particularly by doubling. Tacticians were now mainly absorbed in
working out this form of attack and the methods of meeting it, and
Russell's elaborate articles for handling squadrons and subdivisions
independently may well have had this intention.

The new phase of tactical opinion is that which we find expounded in
Pere Hoste's famous work, _L' Art des armees navales, ou
Traite des evolutions navales_, published in 1697 at the
instigation of the Comte de Tourville. The author was a Jesuit, but
claims that he is merely giving the result of his experience while
serving with the great French admirals of that time, who had learned
all they knew either as allies or enemies of the English. 'For twelve
years,' he says in his apology for touching naval subjects, 'I have
had the honour of serving with Monsieur le Marechal d'Estrees,
Monsieur le Duc de Mortemart, and Monsieur le Marechal de Tourville
in all the expeditions they made in command of naval fleets; and
Monsieur le Marechal de Tourville has been kind enough to
communicate to me his lights, bidding me write on a matter which I
think has nev