t of
Barcelona the Spanish khalifs had carried on an enormous commerce, and
they with their coadjutors--Jewish merchants--had adopted or originated
many commercial inventions, which, with matters of pure science,
they had transmitted to the trading communities of Europe. The art of
book-keeping by double entry was thus brought into Upper Italy. The
different kinds of insurance were adopted, though strenuously resisted
by the clergy. They opposed fire and marine insurance, on the ground
that it is a tempting of Providence. Life insurance was regarded as
an act of interference with the consequences of God's will. Houses
for lending money on interest and on pledges, that is, banking and
pawnbroking establishments, were bitterly denounced, and especially was
indignation excited against the taking of high rates of interest,
which was stigmatized as usury--a feeling existing in some backward
communities up to the present day. Bills of exchange in the present form
and terms were adopted, the office of the public notary established, and
protests for dishonored obligations resorted to. Indeed, it may be said,
with but little exaggeration, that the commercial machinery now used
was thus introduced. I have already remarked that, in consequence of the
discovery of America, the front of Europe had been changed. Many rich
Italian merchants and many enterprising Jews, had settled in Holland
England, France, and brought into those countries various mercantile
devices. The Jews, who cared nothing about papal maledictions, were
enriched by the pontifical action in relation to the lending of money at
high interest; but Pius II., perceiving the mistake that had been
made, withdrew his opposition. Pawnbroking establishments were finally
authorized by Leo X., who threatened excommunication of those who wrote
against them. In their turn the Protestants now exhibited a dislike
against establishments thus authorized by Rome. As the theological
dogma, that the plague, like the earthquake, is an unavoidable
visitation from God for the sins of men, began to be doubted, attempts
were made to resist its progress by the establishment of quarantines.
When the Mohammedan discovery of inoculation was brought from
Constantinople in 1721, by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, it was so
strenuously resisted by the clergy, that nothing short of its adoption
by the royal family of England brought it into use. A similar resistance
was exhibited when Jenner introduced