umbus
the learned kept to these conceptions, instead of modifying them by
the extra knowledge gained during the second period of the Middle
Ages, when travellers of all kinds obtained much fuller information
of Asia, North Europe, and even, as, we shall see, of some parts
of America.

It is not altogether surprising that this period should have been
so backward in geographical knowledge, since the map of Europe
itself, in its political divisions, was entirely readjusted during
this period. The thousand years of history which elapsed between 450
and 1450 were practically taken up by successive waves of invasion
from the centre of Asia, which almost entirely broke up the older
divisions of the world.

In the fifth century three wandering tribes, invaded the Empire, from
the banks of the Vistula, the Dnieper, and the Volga respectively. The
Huns came from the Volga, in the extreme east, and under Attila, "the
Hammer of God," wrought consternation in the Empire; the Visigoths,
from the Dnieper, attacked the Eastern Empire; while the Vandals,
from the Vistula, took a triumphant course through Gaul and Spain,
and founded for a time a Vandal empire in North Africa. One of the
consequences of this movement was to drive several of the German
tribes into France, Italy, and Spain, and even over into Britain;
for it is from this stage in the world's history that we can trace
the beginning of England, properly so called, just as the invasion
of Gaul by the Franks at this time means the beginning of French
history. By the eighth century the kingdom of the Franks extended
all over France, and included most of Central Germany; while on
Christmas Day, 800, Charles the Great was crowned at Rome, by the
Pope, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, which professed to revive
the glories of the old empire, but made a division between the
temporal power held by the Emperor and the spiritual power held
by the Pope.

One of the divisions of the Frankish Empire deserves attention,
because upon its fate rested the destinies of most of the nations
of Western Europe. The kingdom of Burgundy, the buffer state between
France and Germany, has now entirely disappeared, except as the
name of a wine; but having no natural boundaries, it was disputed
between France and Germany for a long period, and it may be fairly
said that the Franco-Prussian War was the last stage in its history
up to the present. A similar state existed in the east of Europe,
viz. t