rence, so long the center of political freedom, fell beneath
the yoke of her merchant princes. It is difficult for the historian not
to feel either a monarchical or a republican bias. Yet this internal and
gradual revolution in the states of Italy may be regarded neither as a
matter for exultation in the cause of sovereignty, nor for lamentation
over the decay of liberty. It was but part of an inevitable process
which the Italians shared, according to the peculiarities of their
condition, in common with the rest of Europe.

In tracing the history of the Visconti and the Sforzas our attention has
been naturally directed to the private and political vices of the
despot. As a contrast to so much violence and treachery, we have studied
the character of one of the best princes produced in this period. Yet it
must be borne in mind that the Duke of Urbino was far less
representative of his class than Francesco Sforza, and that the aims and
notions of Gian Galeazzo Visconti formed the ideal to which an Italian
prince of spirit, if he had the opportunity, aspired. The history of art
and literature in this period belongs to another branch of the inquiry;
and a separate chapter must be devoted to the consideration of political
morality as theorized by the Italians at the end of these two centuries
of intrigue. But having insisted on the violence and vices of the
tyrants, it seemed necessary to close the review of their age by
describing the Italian nobleman as court-life made him. Castiglione
shows him at the very best: the darker shadows of the picture are
omitted; the requirements of the most finished culture and the tone of
the purest society in Italy are depicted with the elegance of a scholar
and the taste of a true gentleman. The fact remains that the various
influences at work in Italy during the age of the despots had rendered
the conception of this ideal possible. Nowhere else in Europe could a
portrait of so much dignity and sweetness, combining the courage of a
soldier with the learning of a student and the accomplishments of an
artist, the liberality of freedom with the courtesies of service, have
been painted from the life and been recognized as the model which all
members of polite society should imitate. Nobler characters and more
heroic virtues might have been produced by the Italian commonwealths if
they had continued to enjoy their ancient freedom of self-government.
Meanwhile we must render this justice to Italia