their abodes the
right of sanctuary. Popes sold absolution for the most horrible
excesses, and granted indulgences beforehand for the commission of
crimes of lust and violence. Success was the standard by which acts were
judged; and the man who could help his friends intimidate his enemies,
and carve a way to fortune for himself by any means he chose, was
regarded as a hero. Machiavelli's use of the word _virtu_ is in this
relation most instructive. It has altogether lost the Christian sense of
_virtue_, and retains only so much of the Roman _virtus_ as is
applicable to the courage, intellectual ability, and personal prowess of
one who has achieved his purpose, be that what it may. The upshot of
this state of things was that individuality of character and genius
obtained a freer scope at this time in Italy than during any other
period of modern history.

[1] 'Very few indeed have those been, whose motive for tyrannicide
was a pure love of their country's liberty; and these deserve the
highest praise.'

[2] It is quite impossible to furnish a complete view of
Italian society under this aspect. Students must be referred to
the stories of the novelists, who collected the more dramatic
incidents and presented them in the form of entertaining
legends. It may suffice here to mention Bartolommeo Colleoni,
Angelo Poliziano, and Pontano, all of whom owed their start in
life to the murder of their respective fathers by assassins; to
Varchi and Filelfo, whose lives were attempted by cut-throats;
to Cellini, Perugino, Masaccio, Berni, in each of whose
biographies poison and the knife play their parts. If men of
letters and artists were exposed to these perils, the dangers
of the great and noble may be readily imagined.

At the same time it must not be forgotten that during this period the
art and culture of the Renaissance were culminating. Filelfo was
receiving the gold of Filippo Maria Visconti. Guarino of Verona was
instructing the heir of Ferrara, and Vittorino da Feltre was educating
the children of the Marquis of Mantua. Lionardo was delighting Milan
with his music and his magic world of painting. Poliziano was pouring
forth honeyed eloquence at Florence. Ficino was expounding Plato.
Boiardo was singing the prelude to Ariosto's melodies at Ferrara. Pico
della Mirandola was dreaming of a reconciliation of the Hebrew, Pagan,
and Christian traditions. It is necessa