nations by Great Britain, France, and the
United States. Even now there is much distrust of the ability of the
ordinary man in politics, and considerably more of the ordinary woman.
But there have been so many extraordinary individuals who have risen
to political eminence from the common crowd, that the legislative
privilege can no longer be confined to an aristocracy. The old
aristocratic element is represented to-day by a senate, or upper
house, composed of men who are prominent by reason of birth, wealth,
or position, but the upper house is of minor importance. The real
legislative power rests with the lower chamber, which directly
represents the middle and lower classes, professional, business, and
industrial. The action of lawmaking bodies is usually limited in scope
by the provisions of a written constitution, and is modified by the
public opinion of constituents. Important among the necessary
legislation is the regulation of the economic and social relations of
individuals and corporations, provision for an adequate revenue by
means of a system of taxation, appropriation for the maintenance of
departments of government and necessary public works, and the
determination of an international policy. In the United States an
elaborate system of checks and balances gives the executive a
provisional veto on legislation, but gives large advisory powers to
Congress. In Great Britain the executive is the chief of the dominant
party in Parliament, and if he loses the confidence of the legislative
body he loses his position as prime minister unless sustained in a
national election.

In all legislative bodies there are inevitable differences of opinion
and conflicts of interests resulting in party divisions and such
opposite groups as conservatives and radicals. The formulation and
pursuance of a national policy is, therefore, not an easy task, and
the conflict of interests often necessitates compromise, so that a
history of legislation over a series of years shows that national
progress is generally accomplished by liberalism wresting a modicum of
power from conservatism, then giving way for a little to a period of
reaction, and then pushing forward a step further as public opinion
becomes more intelligent or more courageous.

337. =The Executive Department.=--Legislative bodies occasionally take
vacations; the executive is always on duty in person or through his
subordinates. Popularly considered, the executive department