izens who
were convinced of the corruption of city government. Among the
pioneers in organization were leagues of reform in Chicago, Baltimore,
and Boston, organized between 1874 and 1885. In 1887 the Massachusetts
Society for Promoting Good Citizenship was formed. The weakness of the
early movements was the temporary enthusiasm that soon died away after
a victory for reform was gained at the polls; within a short time the
grafters were in the saddle again. The year 1892 marked an epoch, for
in that year the first City Club was organized in New York, followed
by Good Government Clubs in many cities, and finally by the National
Municipal League in 1894. Two hundred reform leagues in the larger
cities united in the National Reform League, with its centre in
Philadelphia. After 1905 a new impetus was given to civic reform by
the new moral emphasis in business and politics. Better officials were
elected and others were reminded that they were responsible to the
people more than to the political machine. An extension of reform
effort through direct primary nominations came into vogue on the
principle that government ought to be by the people themselves: that
democracy means self-control. The extension of municipal ownership was
widely discussed on the principle that the people's interests demanded
the better control of public utilities. There was apparent a new
recognition that the city government was only an agent of popular
control, not an irresponsible bureau for the enrichment of a few
officials at the public expense.

276. =Commission Government.=--In a number of cases radical changes
were made in the charter of the city. Galveston and several other
Texas cities tried the experiment of substituting a commission for
the mayor and council. The Galveston idea originated in 1901, after a
hurricane had devastated the city, and the mayor and aldermen proved
unable to cope with the situation. Upon request of an existing civic
committee the State legislature gave to the city a new charter, with
provision for a commission of five, including a mayor who ordinarily
has no more power than any other commissioner. Each man was to manage
a department and receive a salary. In four years the commission saved
the city a million dollars. Des Moines, Iowa, added to the Galveston
plan the initiative, the referendum, and the recall, put in force a
merit system for subordinate officials, and adopted the non-partisan
open primary. These exper