e birth-rate, Newsholme, the medical officer to the
Local Government Board, writes: "There can be no reasonable doubt that
much of the reduction has been caused by that 'concentration' on the
mother and the child which has been a striking feature of the last few
years. Had the experience of 1896-1900 held good there would have been
45,120 more deaths of infants in 1910 than actually occurred." In some
parts of the country, however, where the women go out to work in
factories (as in Lancashire and parts of Staffordshire) the infantile
mortality remains very high.

[4] Mrs. Bertrand Russell, "The Ghent School for Mothers," _Nineteenth
Century_, December, 1906.

[5] It is scarcely necessary to say that other classifications of social
reform on its more hygienic side may be put forward. Thus W.H. Allen,
looking more narrowly at the sanitary side of the matter, but without
confining his consideration to the nineteenth century, finds that there
are always seven stages: (1) that of racial tutelage, when sanitation
becomes conscious and receives the sanction of law; (2) the introduction
of sanitary comfort, well-paved streets, public sewers, extensive
waterworks; (3) the period of commercial sanitation, when the mercantile
classes insist upon such measures as quarantine and street-cleaning to
check the immense ravages of epidemics; (4) the introduction of
legislation against nuisances and the tendency to extend the definition
of nuisance, which for Bracton, in the fourteenth century, meant an
obstruction, and for Blackstone, in the eighteenth, included things
otherwise obnoxious, such as offensive trades and foul watercourses; (5)
the stage of precaution against the dangers incidental to the slums that
are fostered by modern conditions of industry; (6) the stage of
philanthropy, erecting hospitals, model tenements, schools, etc.; (7)
the stage of socialistic sanitation, when the community as a whole
actively seeks its own sanitary welfare, and devotes public funds to
this end. (W.H. Allen, "Sanitation and Social Progress," _American
Journal of Sociology_, March, 1903.)

[6] Dr. F. Bushee has pointed out ("Science and Social Progress,"
_Popular Science Monthly_, September, 1911) that there is a kind of
related progression between science and practice in this matter: "The
natural sciences developed first, because man was first interested in
the conquest of nature, and the simpler physical laws could be grasped
at an early peri