e high commission, the articles of Perth, the canons,
and the liturgy, were abolished and declared unlawful; and the whole
fabric which Jamas and Charles, in a long course of years, had been
rearing with so much care and policy, fell at once to the ground.

{1639.} The covenant, likewise, was ordered to be signed by every one,
under pain of excommunication.[*]

The independency of the ecclesiastical upon the civil power, was the
old Presbyterian principle, which had been zealously adopted at the
reformation, and which, though James and Charles had obliged the church
publicly to disclaim it, had secretly been adhered to by all ranks of
people. It was commonly asked whether Christ or the king were superior;
and as the answer seemed obvious, it was inferred, that the assembly,
being Christ's council, was superior in all spiritual matters to the
parliament, which was only the king's. But as the Covenanters were
sensible that this consequence, though it seemed to them irrefragable,
would not be assented to by the king, it became necessary to maintain
their religious tenets by military force, and not to trust entirely to
supernatural assistance, of which, however, they held themselves well
assured. They cast their eyes on all sides, abroad and at home, whence
ever they could expect any aid or support.

After France and Holland had entered into a league against Spain, and
framed a treaty of partition, by which they were to conquer and to
divide between them the Low Country provinces, England was invited to
preserve a neutrality between the contending parties, while the French
and Dutch should attack the maritime towns of Flanders. But the king
replied to D'Estrades, the French ambassador, who opened the proposal,
that he had a squadron ready, and would cross the seas, if necessary,
with an army of fifteen thousand men, in order to prevent these
projected conquests.[**] This answer, which proves that Charles though
he expressed his mind with an imprudent candor, had at last acquired
a just idea of national interest irritated Cardinal Richelieu; and, in
revenge, that politic and enterprising minister carefully fomented the
first commotions in Scotland, and secretly supplied the Covenanters with
money and arms, in order to encourage them in their opposition against
their sovereign.

* King's Decl. p. 317.

** Mem. D'Estrades, vol. i.

But the chief resource of the Scottish malecontents was in themselves,
and in t