s, etc.]

The election of public officers, or the inalienability of their
functions, the absence of a gradation of powers, and the introduction
of a judicial control over the secondary branches of the administration,
are the universal characteristics of the American system from Maine to
the Floridas. In some States (and that of New York has advanced most
in this direction) traces of a centralized administration begin to
be discernible. In the State of New York the officers of the central
government exercise, in certain cases, a sort of inspection or control
over the secondary bodies. *i

[Footnote i: For instance, the direction of public instruction centres
in the hands of the Government. The legislature names the members of
the University, who are denominated Regents; the Governor
and Lieutentant-Governor of the State are necessarily of the
number.--Revised Statutes, vol. i. p. 455. The Regents of the University
annually visit the colleges and academies, and make their report to
the legislature. Their superintendence is not inefficient, for several
reasons: the colleges in order to become corporations stand in need of
a charter, which is only granted on the recommendation of the Regents;
every year funds are distributed by the State for the encouragement of
learning, and the Regents are the distributors of this money. See chap.
xv. "Instruction," Revised Statutes, vol. i. p. 455.

The school-commissioners are obliged to send an annual report to the
Superintendent of the Republic.--Id. p. 488.

A similar report is annually made to the same person on the number and
condition of the poor.--Id. p. 631.]

At other times they constitute a court of appeal for the decision of
affairs. *j In the State of New York judicial penalties are less used
than in other parts as a means of administration, and the right of
prosecuting the offences of public officers is vested in fewer hands. *k
The same tendency is faintly observable in some other States; *l but in
general the prominent feature of the administration in the United States
is its excessive local independence.

[Footnote j: If any one conceives himself to be wronged by the
school-commissioners (who are town-officers), he can appeal to the
superintendent of the primary schools, whose decision is final.--Revised
Statutes, vol. i. p. 487.

Provisions similar to those above cited are to be met with from time to
time in the laws of the State of New York; but in general thes