re relatively. Accordingly,
nothing prevents a thing which was not voluntary in comparison with
one thing, from becoming voluntary when compared with another.

Reply Obj. 3: That which is done through fear, is voluntary without
any condition, that is to say, according as it is actually done: but
it is involuntary, under a certain condition, that is to say, if such
a fear were not threatening. Consequently, this argument proves
rather the opposite.
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SEVENTH ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 6, Art. 7]

Whether Concupiscence Causes Involuntariness?

Objection 1: It would seem that concupiscence causes involuntariness.
For just as fear is a passion, so is concupiscence. But fear causes
involuntariness to a certain extent. Therefore concupiscence does so
too.

Obj. 2: Further, just as the timid man through fear acts counter to
that which he proposed, so does the incontinent, through
concupiscence. But fear causes involuntariness to a certain extent.
Therefore concupiscence does so also.

Obj. 3: Further, knowledge is necessary for voluntariness. But
concupiscence impairs knowledge; for the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi,
5) that "delight," or the lust of pleasure, "destroys the judgment of
prudence." Therefore concupiscence causes involuntariness.

_On the contrary,_ Damascene says (De Fide Orth. ii, 24): "The
involuntary act deserves mercy or indulgence, and is done with
regret." But neither of these can be said of that which is done out
of concupiscence. Therefore concupiscence does not cause
involuntariness.

_I answer that,_ Concupiscence does not cause involuntariness, but on
the contrary makes something to be voluntary. For a thing is said to
be voluntary, from the fact that the will is moved to it. Now
concupiscence inclines the will to desire the object of
concupiscence. Therefore the effect of concupiscence is to make
something to be voluntary rather than involuntary.

Reply Obj. 1: Fear regards evil, but concupiscence regards good. Now
evil of itself is counter to the will, whereas good harmonizes with
the will. Therefore fear has a greater tendency than concupiscence to
cause involuntariness.

Reply Obj. 2: He who acts from fear retains the repugnance of the
will to that which he does, considered in itself. But he that acts
from concupiscence, e.g. an incontinent man, does not retain his
former will whereby he repudiated the object of his concupiscence;
for his will is changed so that he desi