bus (S) is not a wise man (P).

In this example, instead of P being predicated of M, M is predicated of
P, and yet S is given as included not in P, but in M. The divergence of
such a syllogism from the _Dictum_ may, however, be easily shown to be
superficial by writing, instead of _No wise man fears death_, the
simple, converse, _No man who fears death is wise_.

Again:

Some dogs (M) are friendly to man (P);
All dogs (M) are carnivores (S):
.'. Some carnivores (S) are friendly to man (P).

Here P is predicated of M undistributed; and instead of S being included
in M, M is included in S: so that the divergence from the type of
syllogism to which the _Dictum_ directly applies is still greater than
in the former case. But if we transpose the premises, taking first

All dogs (M) are carnivores (P),

then P is predicated of M distributed; and, simply converting the other
premise, we get--

Some things friendly to man (S) are dogs (M):

whence it follows that--

Some things friendly to man (S) are carnivores (P);

and this is the simple converse of the original conclusion.

Once more:

No pigs (P) are philosophers (M);
Some philosophers (M) are hedonists (S):
.'. Some hedonists (S) are not pigs (P).

In this case, instead of P being predicated of M distributed, M is
predicated of P distributed; and instead of S (or part of it) being
included in M, we are told that some M is included in S. Still there is
no real difficulty. Simply convert both the premises, and we have:

No philosophers (M) are pigs (P);
Some hedonists (S) are philosophers (M).

Whence the same conclusion follows; and the whole syllogism plainly
conforms directly to the _Dictum_.

Such departures as these from the normal syllogistic form are said to
constitute differences of Figure (see Sec. 2); and the processes by which
they are shown to be unessential differences are called Reduction (see Sec.
6).

Sec. 2. Figure is determined by the position of the Middle Term in the
premises; of which position there are four possible variations. The
middle term may be subject of the major premise, and predicate of the
minor, as in the first example above; and this position, being directly
conformable to the requirements of the _Dictum_, is called the First
Figure. Or the middle term may be predicate of both premises, as in the
second of the above examples; and this is called the Second Figure. Or