nions, garlic, bamiahs, radishes, tomatoes,
cucumbers, and water-melons; while Indian figs, pomegranates, lemons,
oranges, citrons, bananas, and grapes are grown in profusion in the
Khartum gardens. Date-palms are plentiful on the Blue Nile and further
south; but it is not possible to dry them, for they at once become full
of insects. Rain often spoils the date harvest.

Besides agriculture and cattle-breeding, the Sudanese may be called a
thoroughly pastoral nation. During the long wars against the Government,
as well as in the internal disturbances, the camels and oxen were almost
exterminated; and in 1889 a cattle plague still further reduced the
numbers.

When Fashoda was occupied, quantities of cows were taken from the
Shilluks and sent either to Gezireh or on to the Berber market, in order
to try and stimulate breeding. There are quantities of goats and sheep,
as only a comparatively small number of these have been killed; but the
greatest loss has been in camels, and it is not so easy to replenish the
country in this respect. There are still a considerable number of
donkeys, which are used both for riding and as pack-animals. A good
donkey will fetch from forty to two hundred dollars.

The Sudanese are born traders and dealers; it is almost a passion with
them, and they like the travelling which trade involves. Of course the
flourishing commerce of the old days has been quite destroyed. The
import of goods to the Sudan from the north and east was formerly in the
hands of one merchant. The Berber-Sawakin and Berber-Korosko roads were
opened through Wad Adlan, and the re-occupation of Tokar by Egypt has
done a great deal to help commerce. Wad Adlan's successor, Nur
Gereifawi, established the ushr (or one-tenth tax) on all important
goods, in addition to the "zeka," or two and a-half per cent., which was
formerly the only tax levied.

This increase in taxation has rather impaired than improved trade, but
it is still fairly brisk. However, the "ushr" was levied twice, in both
Omdurman and Berber, so that the beit el mal obtained twenty-two and
a-half per cent. profit on all imported goods. This exorbitant taxation
led to goods being smuggled into the town by night. In spite of every
precaution being taken, smuggling still continued; and at last it was
decided that all merchants should have their goods stamped at the beit
el mal.

This stamp bears the words, "Ushr beit el mal el umum" ("The
tenth--general beit e