tter and the weaver,
of menial castes which in Bengal have now obtained a position above
the agricultural castes. It may be suggested in explanation that the
old fabric of Hindu society, that is the village community, has long
decayed in Bengal owing to Muhammadan dominance, the concentration
of estates in the hands of large proprietors and the weakening or
lapse of the customary rights of tenants. Coupled with this has been
the growth of an important urban population, in which the castes
mentioned have raised themselves from their menial position in the
villages and attained wealth and influence, just as the Gujarati Telis
are now doing in Burhanpur, while the agricultural castes of Bengal
have been comparatively depressed. Hence the urban industrial castes
have obtained a great rise in status. Sir H. Risley's emphasis of the
importance of oil in Hindu domestic ceremonial is no doubt quite true,
though it is perhaps little used in sacrifices, butter being generally
preferred as a product of the sacred cow. But the inference does not
seem necessarily to follow that the producer of any article shares
exactly in the estimation attaching to the thing itself. Turmeric,
for instance, is a sacred plant and indispensable at every wedding;
but those who grow turmeric always incur a certain stigma and loss in
social position. The reason for the impurity of the Teli's calling
seems somewhat doubtful. That generally given is his sinful conduct
in harnessing the sacred ox and blindfolding the animal's eyes to
make it work continuously on the tread-mill. The labour is said to be
very severe, and the bullocks often die after two or three years. As
already seen, the Teli fears that after death his soul may pass into
one of his own bullocks in retribution for his treatment of them during
life. Another reason which may be suggested is that the crushing of
oil-seeds must involve a large destruction of insect life, many of
the seeds being at times infested with insects. The Teli's occupation
would naturally rank with the other village industries, that is below
agriculture; and prior to the introduction of cash coinage he must have
received contributions of grain from the tenants for supplying them
with oil like the other village menials. He still takes his oil to the
fields at harvest-time and gets his sheaf of grain from each holding.

11. Social customs and caste penalties

The Telis will take cooked food from Kurmis and Kunbis,