ined until the steam
pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this
was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater
amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in
England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which
is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until
Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a
plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.

9. _The Safety Lamp._ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of
the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the
miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives
thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in
1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these
explosions.

10. _Transportation._ Now that there was so much manufacturing carried
on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to
where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many
parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as
the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to
form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in
road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)

Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in
rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in
1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800
many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.

11. _Agriculture._ The number of people engaged in the factories was
increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it
necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger;
better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making
it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater
quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the
exhaustion of the soil.

12. _Social Conditions._ Out of the factory system grew the division of
classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great
problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.

We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from
an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and
became the chief