ulated by the
introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer
guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the
use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediaeval
castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the
invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of
knowledge.

The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.

Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men
travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes
were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia
Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was
closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez
Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good
Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the
Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.

Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to
solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by
Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still
earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more
complete solution.

Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of
geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and
not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by
sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--a
route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the
Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying
it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not
want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal.
The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of
Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer;
but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made
his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave
ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile
he was enabled to put his dream to the test.

A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his
efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher
may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller'