application
less strict, its employment less universal, its operation less severe;
it gives less offence and does not hurt as much. For example, after
the first Restoration,[6301] the decree of 1811 against the smaller
seminaries is repealed. They are handed back to the bishops, resume
their ecclesiastical character and return to the special and normal
road out of which Napoleon forced them to march. The drum, the drill and
other exercises too evidently Napoleonic disappear almost immediately in
the private and public establishments devoted to common instruction. The
school system ceases to be a military apprenticeship and the college is
no longer a preparatory annex for the barracks. Soon and for many years,
Guizot, Cousin, and Villemain brilliantly hold the chairs at Sorbonne
university and teach the highest subjects of philosophy, literature and
history admired by attentive and sympathetic audiences. Later, under the
monarchy of July, the Institute, mutilated by the First Consul, restores
and completes itself. It becomes once more united with the suspect
division of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, which after
the Consulate, had been missing. In 1833, a minister, Guizot, provides,
through a law which has become an institution, for the regular
maintenance, the obligatory appropriation, the certain recruitment, and
for the quality and universality of primary instruction. At the same
time, during eighteen years, the university administration, moderating
its pressure or smoothing its sharp points, operates at the three
stages of instruction in tolerant or liberal hands, with all the caution
compatible with its organization. It does so in such a way as to do a
great deal of good without much harm, by half-satisfying the majority
which, in its entirety, is semi-believer, semi-freethinker, by not
seriously offending anybody except the Catholic clergy and that
unyielding minority which, through doctrinal principle or through
religious zeal, assigns to education as a directing end and supreme
object, the definitive cultivation, rooting and flowering of faith. But,
in law as well as in fact, the University of 1808 still subsists; it has
kept its rights, it levies its taxes, it exercises its jurisdiction and
enjoys its monopoly.

In the early days of the Restoration, in 1814, the government maintained
it only provisionally. It promised everything, radical reform and
full liberty. It announced that, through its effo