is general plan; each precept is referred to
that portion of the vocal apparatus to which it seems best to apply. The
outline of the principles of modern methods contained in the following
chapters follows this general scheme.

It must be understood at the start that on most of the doctrines
included in Vocal Science there is no unanimity of opinion among either
theorists or teachers. Far from this being the case, practically all the
principles of Vocal Science are the subjects of controversy.

CHAPTER II

BREATHING AND BREATH-CONTROL

It is generally considered that, as the breath is the foundation of
singing, the manner of breathing is of vital importance to the singer.
This subject has therefore received a vast amount of attention from
vocal scientists, and the muscular actions of breathing have been
exhaustively studied.

Several sets of rules for inspiration and expiration are put forth by
different authorities. But there is no occasion for going into a
detailed discussion of the different modes of breathing advocated by the
various schools, or of the theoretical arguments which each advances. It
is sufficient to say that the modes of breathing most in vogue are five
in number,--deep abdominal, lateral or costal, fixed high chest,
clavicular, and diaphragmatic-abdominal. However, on experimenting with
these five systems of breathing, it is found that the number may be
reduced to two; of these the others are but slight modifications. In
one system of inspiration the abdomen is protruded, while the upper
chest is held firm, the greatest expansion being at the base of the
lungs. In the other mode of taking breath the abdomen is slightly drawn
in, while the chest is expanded in every direction, upward, laterally,
forward, and backward. In this system the upper chest is held in a fixed
and high position.

Necessarily the manner of filling the lungs involves the manner in which
they are emptied. Opinions are practically unanimous as to the proper
position of the singer before taking breath, that is, at the end of an
expiration. The singer must stand erect, the weight of the body evenly
supported on the balls of both feet, with the whole body in a condition
of lithe suppleness. In both systems of breathing the manner of
expiration is simply a return to this position.

A wide variety of breathing exercises are in use, but these do not
require detailed description. Any one of the prescribed systems of
breat