no credit for their doctrines of vocal control.

Howard usually insisted that his pupils should understand the
theoretical basis of his method, and the exact purpose of each exercise
and muscular contraction. But as a rule his successors do not make this
demand on their pupils. They are content to have the students practise
the prescribed exercises; this the students do, with very little thought
about the theory lying behind the method. For the pupil this system, as
at present generally taught, consists solely of a series of muscular
drills for the tongue, larynx, palate, etc.

In this review of modern methods, the Howard system is important, mainly
because it represents the consistent application of the idea of
mechanical tone-production. As was observed, Howard's theories had very
little influence on the general trend of Vocal Science. The external
features of the Howard system are indeed shared to some extent by the
methods of many other teachers. Muscular drills of about the same type
are very widely used. Some teachers go so far in this respect that their
methods might almost be confounded with the Howard system. But the
resemblance is purely external. Even in 1880, at the time when Howard
had fairly perfected his method, there was nothing novel about exercises
of this type. The first attempts at a practical study of vocal mechanics
consisted of observations of those parts of the vocal organs whose
movements can be readily seen and felt. These are the lips, tongue,
palate, and larynx. Garcia's _Memoire_, already cited, is mainly a
record of observations of this kind. Nearly every vocal theorist since
that time has also paid some attention to this phase of the vocal
action.

In practical methods of instruction, elaborate systems of rules have
long been in use for governing the positions of the tongue, lips,
palate, etc. Unlike the Howard theory, no definite scientific basis is
usually given for specific directions of this kind. Each investigator
has simply noted how certain great singers held their tongues or soft
palates, whether the larynx was held high or low in the throat, etc.,
and considered that these must be the correct positions. It would be
hard to find a greater diversity of opinion on any topic connected with
the voice than is encountered here. To enumerate all the rules which are
given for governing the actions of each part would be useless. A few of
the contradictory opinions regarding the correct po