h her
devoted husband.

The eighteenth century found Italy still under the control of foreign
rulers, and the national spirit was still unborn; public morals seem to
have degenerated rather than improved, and then, as always, the women
were no better than the men desired them to be. Details of the life of
this period are extremely difficult to obtain, as the social aspects of
Italian life from the decline of the Renaissance to the Napoleonic era
have been quite generally neglected by historians; the information which
is obtainable must be derived in large measure from books and letters on
Italian travel, written for the most part by foreigners. One of the most
interesting volumes of this kind was written by a Mrs. Piozzi, the
English wife of an Italian, who had unusual opportunities for a close
observation of social conditions; several of the following paragraphs
are based upon her experiences.

The most striking thing in the social life of this time is the domestic
arrangement whereby every married woman was supposed to have at her beck
and call, in addition to her husband, another cavalier, who was known as
a _cicisbeo_ and was the natural successor of the Florentine _cavaliere_
before mentioned. Cicisbeism has been much criticised and much discussed
as to its bearing upon public morals, and many opposite opinions have
been expressed with regard to it. The Countess Martinengo Cesaresco, who
is a most careful and able student of Italian life, has the following to
say upon the subject: "He [the _cicisbeo_] was frequently a humble
relative--in every family were cadets too poor to marry, as they could
not work for their living, or too sincere to become priests, to whom
cavalier service secured a dinner, at any rate, if they wanted one. It
was the custom to go to the theatre every evening--the box at the opera
was an integral part of the household arrangements, a continuation of
the salon--only it could not be reached without an escort. The chaperon
did not exist, because a woman, no matter how old, was no escort for
another woman, nor could she herself dispense with an attendant of the
other sex. A dowager of sixty and a bride of sixteen had equally to stay
at home if there was not a man to accompany them. The cavalier's service
was particularly in request at the theatre, but he was more or less on
duty whenever his lady left her house for any purpose, with the doubtful
exception of going to church. No husband outside a