's younger sons were
commoners, as was his eldest son so long as his father lived.
Parliamentary and other free institutions, imperfect as they were,
secured the liberties of the people. The life of the agricultural poor
though hard was not intolerable; landowners lived upon their estates and
directed local affairs, and the poor were at least kept from starvation.
France was almost bankrupt, ruined by the prodigality of her two last
kings and their neglect of their duties to their people. Louis XVI. was
forced to summon the states-general, which met at Versailles on May 4,
1789. Political discontent was rife and was rendered dangerous by the
distress of the poor; the winter had been hard, prices were rising, and
Paris was full of destitute persons, of labourers out of work, and along
with them a large number of criminals and ruffians.

The deputies of the "third estate," who were about equal in number to
those of the two privileged orders and were supported by a few nobles
and a large minority of the clergy, demanded that the three estates
should form a single chamber. The king upheld the privileged orders in
their refusal. The third estate voted itself a "national assembly," and,
after a struggle of six weeks, gained its point, and the estates were
constituted as a single assembly. Paris was in a ferment of excitement.
The king dismissed Necker, the minister of finance, who was trusted by
the popular party, and refused to withdraw his troops from the city. A
riot broke out, and on July 14 the Bastille, an ancient fortress and
prison, then little used, which was guarded by a few Swiss and some old
soldiers or _invalides_, was taken by the mob, and the governor and some
others were murdered. The king's brother, the Count of Artois, the
Prince of Conde, and several unpopular nobles fled from France. A new
municipality was established and Lafayette was chosen to command a new
civic militia or national guard. Disorder and rioting prevailed in the
provinces, country-houses were burnt and pillaged, and many murders were
committed. Louis was forced to assent to all the demands of the people;
he recalled Necker, and showed himself at the Hotel de Ville wearing the
national cockade or tricolour. The assembly voted decrees sweeping away
the feudal system, abolishing the privileges of classes and
corporations, and ecclesiastical tithes, and promulgated a flatulent
declaration of the rights of man. Bread-riots broke out in Paris on