where the religious change had already obtained a more durable
footing, as in France and the Netherlands, politico-religious
variances of the most thoroughgoing nature arose almost of necessity:
the Protestantism of Western Europe was pervaded by anti-monarchical
ideas. We noticed how much everything was preparing for this under
Queen Mary in England also: that it did not so happen was owing to the
arrangements made by Elizabeth. But this tendency appeared in full
force in Scotland, and in fact more strongly there than anywhere else.

In Scotland the efforts made by all the monarchic powers of this
period in common were not so successful as in the rest of Europe. The
kings of the house of Stuart, who had themselves proceeded from the
ranks of the nobility, never succeeded in reducing the powerful lords
to real obedience. The clannish national feeling, closely bordering on
the old Keltic principle, procured the nobles at all times numerous
and devoted followers: they fought out their feuds among themselves,
and then combined anew in free confederacies. They held fast to the
view that their sovereigns were not lords of the land (for they
regarded their possessions as independent properties), not kings of
Scotland but kings of the Scots, above all, kings of the great
vassals, who had to pay them an obedience defined by laws. It gave the
kings not a little superiority that they had obtained a decisive
influence over the appointment to the high dignities in the Church,
but this proved advantageous neither to the Church nor at last to
themselves. Sometimes two vassals actually fought with each other for
a rich benefice. The French abuses came into vogue here also:
ecclesiastical benefices fell to the dependents of the court, to the
younger sons of leading houses, often to their bastards: they were
given or sold _in commendam_, and then served only for pleasure and
gain: the Scotch Church fell into an exceedingly scandalous and
corrupt state.

It was not so much disputed questions of doctrine as in Germany, nor
again the attempt to keep out Papal influence as in England, but
mainly aversion to the moral corruption of the spiritualty which gave
the first impulse to the efforts at reformation in Scotland. We find
Lollard societies among the Scots much later than in England: their
tendencies spread through wide circles owing to the anticlerical
spirit of the century, and received fresh support from the doctrinal
writings that c